Image by DALL-E.
February 20th, 2025
The training of a forward observer begins when the 13 fox joins their unit. Initial entry training provides a very basic floor - the brand new 13 fox will know how to call for fire, have some target identification skill, be competent at reading a map, and have some basic land navigation experience. The unit they join will define what equipment they commonly use, what assets they commonly work with, and the rest of the iceberg of knowledge that is required. In this article, I’ll review concepts from the work of Allan Collins and Manu Kapur on cognitive apprenticeship.
Image by DALL-E.
When we think of apprenticeship, we think of welders, tattoo artists, and specialized craftsmen. The relationship between a novice and an expert with the goal of improving the skills of the novice happens in many contexts. By spending time together, working on assigned tasks, and seeing the expert at work, the novice improves. In the context of the forward observer, this might include watching the expert handle equipment, maintain focus, or listen to audio several sources at once.
In a chapter titled, “Cognitive Apprenticeship” from The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences (3rd ed.) DOI, Allan Collins and Manu Kapur describe what they term cognitive apprenticeship. In their terms, cognitive apprenticeship builds on the traditional model by moving into areas that are not done with the hands - like tailoring, shoemaking, or farming. Cognitive apprenticeship requires additional, intentional enhancements to help make visible those things happening in the mind of the expert. In table 8.1, the authors define four principles for an effective cognitive apprenticeship environment, each with three to six aspects. These principles are (parentheticals my own):
Let’s think about these four principles as they apply to the apprenticeship of the 13 fox.
The types of knowledge that make an expert 13 fox include specific fire support knowledge, rules of thumb, problem solving strategies, and knowledge of where to find new information. The specific fire support knowledge is easy to understand. We train this all the time. We ask these questions at boards, during payday activities, and during team training. Things like weapon system ranges, munition characteristics, structure of fire missions, and key equipment operation are all examples of domain knowledge.
The heuristics, or rules of thumb, are more interesting. These are tricks the expert has learned or discovered over the years. Some examples might be using “at my command” for specific situations, or using an illumination round to mark a target, or the best terrain features for talking an attack helicopter onto a target. These tips and tricks aren’t written in the TRADOC materials (though they might be included in unit publications).
Control and learning strategies have a more abstract meaning. The control strategies include understanding of how to approach a problem. Consider creating the fire support plan for an operation with your infantry. The intentional way the expert approaches this task illustrates their use of control strategies. Learning strategies include knowing where to go to learn new things. This might include staying attuned with the Air Force ASOS unit that supports them, or maybe it’s staying up to date on new equipment being fielded.
The six methods listed by Collins and Kapur are modeling, coaching, scaffolding, articulation, reflection, and exploration. The first two are well-known and common in our field. We are first exposed to modeling and coaching through initial entry training. It is refined in every experience with the Army’s noncommissioned officer education system. Modeling is when the expert embodies their expertise. The expert gives an expert-performance of the task at hand so the apprentice can observe and learn.
Three items I want to describe here are the methods of scaffolding, articulation, and reflection. Scaffolding describes supporting the apprentice in the activities that are beyond their current skill level. The expert supports some part of the task so the apprentice can attempt something big. Think about letting your new PV2 13 fox talk to the aircraft. You support them by helping them with what they should say and helping them understand brevity codes, but they are the one actually talking to the aircraft. Articulation refers to speaking aloud the thought process. This can be included in modeling, when the expert is performing their task, or by the apprentice as they talk through their decisions and difficulties. Articulation is a key part of cognitive apprenticeship - we cannot see the thoughts in each other’s heads. Lastly, let’s consider reflection. This step comes naturally to Army servicemembers although we may not know it by that name. Reflection refers to measuring ones performance against peers or against a known standard. Oftentimes we aren’t measuring the performance during training, but doing so meaningfully improves the development of expertise.
The three aspects Collins and Kapur describe in their book chapter are gradually increasing complexity, exposing the apprentice to a broader and broader problem space, and global-before-local. The first two aspects are straightforward. When working with the new 13 fox, we provide them with simpler problems at first and then move to more and more complex tasks. That’s intuitive. The same can be said for increasing the diversity of the tasks. We use different situations, different targets, different essential fire support tasks. The last item, global-before-local, deserves some additional detail.
It has been shown that one defining characteristic of an expert is to take in the whole of the problem and think about it before diving in to start work. An amateur might dive in right away, using the skills they know to tackle the aspect that caught their attention. The expert will consider the whole problem - the global view - and will determine the most effective first step. During apprenticeship, the expert should help the novice slow down and appreciate the details of the problem. Help them see the big picture and understand where their skills can be best put to use.
The social aspects required of an effective environment for cognitive apprenticeship, as defined by Collins and Kapur, are situated learning, a community of practice, intrinsic motivation, and use of cooperation. Situated learning, in this context, involves keeping the training problems relevant to the real world - train how you fight. Try to imagine problems that reflect a real world situation the novice might face.
The community of practice aspect and the cooperation aspect both involve novices working together to better understand the skills they are learning and to support one another. Collins and Kapur rightly indicate that such coordination cannot be forced. It can, however, be encouraged. Giving the junior 13 foxes a time and a space to work together might be a good step in this direction. There should definitely be an NCO in the room though. To leave them alone is to invite incident reports!
Lastly, there is intrinsic motivation. This is motivation that comes from within. Being inspired by an expert role model can encourage such motivation. Seeing the importance of being the most effective combat multiplier they can be might do it. Feeling the undeniable sense of power that comes with effectively wielding indirect fire support assets might do it. Use your creativity to find a way to tie gaining expertise to the goals of the novices - each person will be different!
A new 13 fox can only become an expert through an effective apprenticeship with existing experts. The TRADOC materials do not make experts from civilians. With some intentional design choices, these apprenticeship activities can be made extremely effective.
Have you experienced an extremely effective apprenticeship? Looking back, did you see some of the aspects discussed above?